The German invasion of the Soviet Union, in the summer of 1941, evoked a variety of responses among the millions of Soviet subjects who found themselves under German rule. Where the individual was in a position to make a choice, these attitudes—ranging from hope for a better tomorrow to fanatical hatred of the invaders—found expression either in collaboration with the Germans or in identification with the Soviet partisan movement behind the German lines. The ensuing battle between the Germans and the partisans was fought not only for highways, railroads, and economic spoils, but also for the minds of men—and here the Germans rapidly lost by default.